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By David A. Guba, Jr., Bard Early College Baltimore 

– Early in 2022, the French legislature greenlighted the cultivation of cannabis inside French territory to supply the nation’s ongoing pilot program in medical marijuana. The clinical trials were launched in March 2021 with cannabis supplied from abroad and have been overseen by the country’s food and drug office, the Agence Nationale de Sécurité du Médicament, or the National Agency for the Safety of Medicines and Health Products.

This two-year pilot program consists of 3,000 patients in France using medical cannabis, something that’s been prohibited since 1953.

While the agency has praised the pilot program for its groundbreaking efforts to produce “the first French data on the efficiency and safety” of cannabis for medical therapies to treat cancers, nerve damage and epilepsy, the trial is not the nation’s first foray into the medical cannabis industry. Far from it.

‘A drug not to be neglected’

I am a historian of cannabis and colonialism in modern France. My research has found that in the middle 19th century, Paris functioned as the epicenter of an international movement to medicalize hashish, a THC-rich intoxicant made from the pressed resin of cannabis plants.

Many pharmacists and physicians then working in France believed hashish was a dangerous and exotic intoxicant from the “Orient” – the Arab Muslim world – that could be tamed by pharmaceutical science and rendered safe and useful against the era’s most frightening diseases.

Starting in the late 1830s, some of those same pharmacists and physicians began preparing and selling hashish-infused edibles, lozenges and later tinctures – hashish-infused alcohol – and even “medicinal cigarettes” for asthma in pharmacies across the country.

Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, dozens of French pharmacists staked their careers on hashish, publishing dissertations, monographs and peer-reviewed articles on its medicinal and scientific benefits.

French epidemiologist Louis-Rémy Aubert-Roche published a treatise in 1840 in which he argued that hashish, administered as a small edible called “dawamesk” taken with coffee, successfully cured plague in seven of 11 patients he treated in the hospitals of Alexandria and Cairo during the epidemic of 1834-35. Aubert-Roche was an anti-contagionist in the era before the germ theory – the idea that microbes can lead to disease – became scientific dogma. He, like most physicians then, believed the plague to be an untransmittable disease of the central nervous system spread to humans via “miasma,” or bad air, in unhygienic and poorly ventilated areas.

Aubert-Roche thus believed, mistaking symptom relief and luck for a cure, that hashish intoxication excited the central nervous system and counteracted the effects of the plague. “The plague,” he wrote, “is a disease of the nerves. Hashish, a substance that acts upon the nervous system, has given me the best results. I thus believe it is a drug not to be neglected.”

Reefer madness

Physician Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours, organizer of the infamous Club des Hachichins in Paris during the 1840s, likewise heralded dawamesk as a homeopathic wonder drug for treating mental illness. Moreau believed insanity was caused by lesions on the brain, and he also believed that hashish counteracted the effects.

Moreau reported in his 1845 work, “Du Hachisch et l’aliénation mentale” (“On Hashish and Mental Illness”), that between 1840 and 1843, he cured seven patients suffering from mental illness at Hôpital Bicêtre in central Paris with hashish. Moreau wasn’t totally off-base; today cannabis-based medicines are prescribed for depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder and bipolar disorders.

Despite the small sample size, doctors from the U.S., the U.K., Germany and Italy published favorable reviews of Moreau’s work with hashish during the late 1840s and across the 1850s. One praised it as a “discovery of much importance for the civilized world.”

Tincture wars

Though physicians in France and abroad touted dawamesk as a miracle cure, they also complained about the inability to standardize doses due to the variation in the potency of different cannabis plants. They also wrote about the challenges posed by the common adulteration of dawamesk, which was exported from North Africa and often laced with other psychoactive plant extracts.

In the early 1830s, several physicians and pharmacists in the British Empire attempted to solve these problems by dissolving hashish in alcohol to produce a tincture. By the middle of the decade, French practitioners followed suit. They developed and marketed their own hashish tinctures for French patients. One pharmacist in Paris, Edmond de Courtive, branded his concoction “Hachischine” after the infamous Muslim assassins often associated with hashish in French culture.

The popularity of hashish tincture grew rapidly in France during the late 1840s, peaking in 1848. That was when pharmacist Joseph-Bernard Gastinel and the aforementioned De Courtive engaged in a legal battle over the patent – then known as the “right to priority” – for a tincture manufactured though a particular distillation method. “L’Affaire Gastinel,” as the press termed it, or The Gastinel Affair, caused an uproar in French medical circles and occupied the pages of journals and newspapers in Paris for much of that fall.

To defend his patent, Gastinel sent two colleagues to argue his case to the Academy of Medicine in October 1848. One, a physician called Willemin, claimed that not only did Gastinel devise the tincture distillation method in question but that his tincture provided a cure for cholera, also thought to be a disease of the nerves.

Though Willemin was unable to convince the Academy of Gastinel’s right to priority, he did convince doctors in Paris to adopt hashish tincture as a treatment against cholera.

Physicians in Paris didn’t have to wait long to test Willemin’s theory. A cholera epidemic erupted in the city’s outskirts just months later. But when hashish tincture failed to cure the nearly 7,000 Parisians killed by the “blue death,” doctors increasingly lost faith in the wonder drug.

In the following decades, hashish tincture fell into disrepute as the medical theories of anti-contagionism that underpinned the drug’s use against the plague and cholera gave way to the germ theory and thus a new understanding of epidemic diseases and their treatment. During the same period, physicians in French Algeria increasingly pointed to hashish use as a key cause of insanity and criminality among indigenous Muslims, a diagnosis they termed “folie haschischique,” or hashish-induced psychosis. Heralded as a wonder drug only decades before, by the end of 19th century the drug was rebranded as an “Oriental poison”.

Lessons for today

In my view, these earlier efforts to medicalize hashish in 19th-century France offer doctors, public health officials and policymakers of today several important insights as they work to return cannabis-based medications to the French market.

First, they must aim to dissociate cannabis intoxicants and medicines from colonial notions of “Oriental” otherness and Muslim violence that ironically underpinned both the rise and fall of hashish as medicine in France during the 19th century. As scholar Dorothy Roberts astutely argued in her 2015 TED Talk, “race medicine is bad medicine, poor science and a false interpretation of humanity.”

As I see it, doctors and patients should also temper their expectations of the benefits of medicinal cannabis and not overpromise and then deliver lackluster results, as happened with hashish tincture during the cholera outbreak of 1848-49.

And they should be mindful that medical knowledge unfolds historically and that staking the new career of cannabis as medicine on contested theories could hitch the drug’s success to the wrong horse, as happened with hashish after the obsolescence of anti-contagionism in the 1860s.

But if France were to engage its colonial past, reform its prohibitionist policies and continue to open up legal room for medical and recreational cannabis, I believe perhaps it could again become a global leader in this new medical marijuana movement.

This is an updated version of a piece that was published on Sept. 24, 2019.

About the Author:

David A. Guba, Jr., Assistant Professor of History, Bard Early College Baltimore

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

By Dan Steinbock

– Over the past decade, global economic prospects have been penalized by the fall of world trade, investment and migration, coupled with the unwarranted suffering of over 100 million globally displaced. It’s a prologue to an untenable future.

The postwar wave of globalization benefited mainly the advanced economies. It was only after 1980 that some large developing countries, particularly China, broke into world markets for manufactured goods and services, while also attracting foreign capital. This era of globalization eclipsed with the global recession in 2008.

As the G20 cooperation subsequently dimmed, so did global growth prospects, too.

Between November 2008 and 2016, global imbalances steadily worsened as a result of increasing trade discrimination. It was only in 2017 that there were some signs of trade recovery.

Yet, that historical opportunity was missed with the U.S. trade wars, followed by waves of COVID19 pandemic, the consequent global depression and nascent Cold Wars.

Global economic integration is often measured by world trade, investment and migration, although technology and finance could be added to the list.

The net effect of the past decade? Plunging trade and investment, slowing migration and explosion of global displacement.

Falling world trade

In particular, the fleeting gains of the U.S.-Sino trade truce were derailed by the global pandemic that caused both services and goods trade to contract by 30 percent in mid-2020. Subsequent gains have been penalized by new waves of pandemic variants and the worsening international economic landscape.

Last year, the World Trade Organization (WTO) anticipated global merchandise trade volume to grow by 10.8 percent, followed by a 4.7 percent rise in 2022. But these projections were unlikely to materialize even before the Ukrainian crisis.

Progress since the plunge of 2008 has been largely reversed. Trade as percentage of world GDP has fallen back to the level where it was over 15 years ago. Geopolitics derailed the potential for global recovery well before the pandemic, due to protectionism and new Cold Wars, compounded by the Russia sanctions.

Plunging world investment

Before the 2008 global crisis, world investment soared to almost $2 trillion. But the hoped-for rebound proved a pipe-dream, due to the tariff wars and the pandemic. High-income economies play a critical role in world inward investment flows. Yet, even before the Ukrainian crisis, world investment had plunged to a level which was first reached already in the late 1990s.

In 2020, global flows of FDI fell by one third to $1 trillion. That’s below the low of the 2008 crisis, and half of world investment in 2007.  Decades of progress have been reversed in just few years.

Globalization undermined

Sources: Difference Group and a. Trade as average of exports and imports; and as % of GDP (World Bank/OECD; b. FDI Inward Flows in $ billions (UNCTADSTAT). c. UN/IOM, d. UNCHR

In the process, the poorest economies have been hurt the most. And that pain is only about to begin.

Slower migration

Over the last two decades, the number of international migrants has climbed to 281 million people. Yet, global migration has been slowing since 2008, particularly in advanced economies. Due to the pandemic, the stock of international migrants has increased only by 2 million; a fourth less than expected by mid-2020.

Let’s put these figures in historical context.

Between 1870 and 1914, some 10 percent of the world population migrated in search for a better life. While the absolute number of international migrants has over tripled in the past half a century, their relative share stayed below 2 percent until 2010 and is today 3.6 percent of world population; a third of what it was a century ago.

Explosion of global displacement

And as migration flows decelerate or are being blocked, the number of globally displaced has exploded, compounded by the post-9/11 wars and external interventions since the Arab Spring, which the West initially saw as the prelude to “democratization” in the Middle East, a bit like the devastated Ukraine today.

As a net effect, the number of forcibly displaced has more than doubled in the past decade. The Ukraine crisis alone is projected to internally displace up to 6.7 million people and 4 million displaced abroad.

Despite COVID-19 mobility restrictions, the total figure exceeded 92 million at the year-end of 2021 and has recently soared over 100 million.

In other words, the number of the globally displaced is soon over twice as high as it was after two world wars, the Holocaust, and Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

If that’s the outcome of “peacetime conditions,” one shudders with horror the effect of wartime conditions in the early 21^st century.

A prelude to darker futures?

In the past half a decade, the costs of missed opportunities amount to trillions of dollars. Given continuing policy mistakes, worse looms ahead.

Growth scenarios that still seemed likely in early 2022 will not materialize because they were projected in fall 2021, when

• a truce subdued the U.S.-Sino trade war;
• Ukraine’s proxy conflict had not yet erupted;
• Sanctions targeting the world’s 11^thlargest economy, the largest natural gas producer and third-largest oil producer, had not yet been launched.
• And the Federal Reserve had not initiated its aggressive rate hikes and quantitative tightening, which will cause lost years in the West and lost decades in the Global South.

As long as current policies remain in place in the West, sanctions will undermine U.S. growth, destabilize the Russian economy, penalize the fragile Euro area and slow Chinese growth – all of which will have an adverse impact on economic prospects in South and Southeast Asia.

The Global South will pay much of the bill; in economic costs and human lives.

The longer the unwarranted stagnation will prevail, the greater the likelihood that current Cold Wars will turn into Hot Wars, at the cost of future generations, even our planet.

That’s something that none of us may want. But it is the net effect of shortsighted policies in the prosperous West.

About the Author:

Dr. Dan Steinbock is an internationally recognized strategist of the multipolar world and the founder of Difference Group. He has served at the India, China and America Institute (US), Shanghai Institutes for International Studies (China) and the EU Center (Singapore). For more, see https://www.differencegroup.net 

Versions of this commentary have been published by multiple major dailies around the world. It is based on a report recently published by the Austrian National Bank (OeNB) and the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber (WKÖ). See also https://www.differencegroup.net